1. General Pharmacological Principles
    2. 1. Introduction, Routes of Drug Administration
    2. Pharmacokinetics: Membrane Transport, Absorption and Distribution of Drugs
    3. Pharmacokinetics: Metabolism and Excretion of Drugs, Kinetics of Elimination
    4. Pharmacodynamics: Mechanism of Drug Action; Receptor Pharmacology
    5. Aspects of Pharmacotherapy, Clinical Pharmacology and Drug Development
    6. Adverse Drug Effects
  2. Drug Acting on Autonomic Nervous System
    3. 7. Cholinergic Transmission and Cholinergic Drugs
    8. Anticholinergic Drugs and Drugs Acting on Autonomic Ganglia
    9. Adrenergic Transmission and Adrenergic Drugs
    10. Antiadrenergic Drugs (Adrenergic Receptor Antagonists) and Drugs for Glaucoma
  3. Autacoids and Related Drugs
    4. 11. Histamine and Antihistaminics
    12. 5-Hydroxytryptamine, its Antagonists and Drug Therapy of Migraine
    13. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes (Eicosanoids) and Platelet Activating Factor
    14. Nonsteroidal Antiinflammatory Drugs and Antipyretic-Analgesics
    15. Antirheumatoid and Antigout Drugs
  4. Respiratory System Drugs
    5. 16. Drugs for Cough and Bronchial Asthma
  5. Hormones and Related Drugs
    6. 17. Anterior Pituitary Hormones
    18. Thyroid Hormones and Thyroid Inhibitors
    19. Insulin, Oral Antidiabetic Drugs and Glucagon
    20. Corticosteroids
    21. Androgens and Related Drugs, Drugs for Erectile Dysfunction
    22. Estrogens, Progestins and Contraceptives
    23. Oxytocin and Other Drugs Acting on Uterus
    24. Hormones and Drugs affecting Calcium balance
  6. Drugs acting on Peripheral nervous system
    7. 25. Skeletal muscle relaxants
    26. Local anaesthetics
  7. Drugs acting on Central nervous system
    8. 27. General anaesthetics
    28. Ethyl and Methyl alcohols
    29. Sedative-Hypnotics
    30. Antiepileptic Drugs
    31. Antiparkinsonian Drugs
    32. Drugs used in Mental Illness: Antipsychotic and Antimanic drugs
    33. Drugs used in Mental Illness: Antidepressant and Antianxiety drugs
    34. Opioid analgesics and antagonists
    35. CNS stimulants and Cognitino enhancers
  8. Cardiovascular drugs
    9. 36. Drugs affecting Renin-Angiotensin system
    37. Nitric oxide and Vasoactive peptide signal molecules
    38. Cardiac glycosides and Drugs for Heart failure
    39. Antiarrhythmic drugs
    40. Antianginal and other Anti-ischaemic drugs
    41. Antihypertensive drugs
  9. Drugs acting on Kidney
    10. 42. Diuretics
    43. Antidiuretics
  10. Drugs affecting blood and Blood formation
    11. 44. Haematinics and Erythropoietin
    45. Drugs affecting Coagulation, Bleeding and Thrombosis
    46. Hypolipidaemic drugs
  11. Gastrointestinal drugs
    12. 47. Drugs for Pepric ulcer and gastroesophageal reflux disease
    48. Antiemetic, Prokinetic and Digestant drugs
    49. Drugs for Constipation and Diarrhoea
  12. Antimicrobial drugs
    13. 50. Antimicrobial drugs: General considerations
    51. Sulfonamides, Cotrimoxazole and Quinolones
    52. Beta-lactam antibiotics
    53. Tetracyclines and Chloramphenicol (Broad-spectrum antibiotics)
    54. Aminoglycosides antibiotics
    55. Macrolide, Lincosamide, Glycopeptide and Other antibacterial antibiotics; Urinary antiseptics
    56. Antitubercular Drugs
    57. Antileprotic Drugs
    58. Antifungal drugs
    59. Antiviral drugs (Non-retroviral)
    60. Antiviral drugs (Anti-retrovirus)
    61. Antimalarial drugs
    62. Antiamoebic and Other antiprotozoal drugs
    63. Antihelmintic drugs
  13. Chemotherapy of Neoplastic diseases
    14. 64. Anticancer drugs
  14. Miscellaneous drugs
    15. 65. Immunosuppressant drugs
    66. Drugs acting on Skin and Mucous membranes
    67. Antiseptics, Disinfectants and Ectoparasiticides
    68. Chelating agents
    69. Vitamins
    70. Vaccine, Antisera and Immunoglobulins
    71. Drug interactions
General Pharmacological Principles
1. Introduction, Routes of Drug Administration
INTRODUCTION
▢ Pharmacology:
▢ Pharmacodynamics:
▢ Pharmacokinetics:
❖ Drug:
▢ Pharmacotherapeutics:
▢ Clinical pharmacology:
▢ Chemotherapy:
❖ Pharmacodynamic agents:
❖ Chemotherapeutic agents:
▢ Pharmacy:
▢ Toxicology:
NATURE OF DRUGS
SOURCES OF DRUGS
▢ Plants:
❖ Alkaloids:
❖ Glycosides:
❖ Oils:
▢ Animals:
▢ Microbes:
▢ Minerals:
▢ Synthetic chemistry:
▢ Biotechnology:
DRUG NOMENCLATURE
▢ Chemical name:
▢ Non-proprietary name:
▢ Proprietary (Brand) name:
DRUG COMPENDIA
▢ Pharmacopoeias:
▢ Formularies:
ESSENTIAL MEDICINES (DRUGS) CONCEPT
DOSAGE FORMS OF DRUGS
▢ Solid dosage forms:
❖ Powders:
  • •
    The drug is in a dry and finely pulverised state.
  • •
    If the drug is for oral administration, each dose has to be wrapped separately or packed in sachets; therefore this dosage form is inconvenient and unpopular except when the quantity is several grams, e.g. oral rehydration salts.
  • •
    Examples
    1. Oral rehydration salts
      2. Image 1
    2. Dusting powders
      3. Image 1
    3. Effervescent powder
      4. Image 1
      • •
        It contains granulated sod. bicarbonate and citric or tartaric acid.
      • •
        They react when dissolved in water to liberate CO₂ causing bubbling.
❖ Tablets:
◉ Chewable tablets:
  • •
    can be chewed and swallowed
  • •
    ingredients must be pleasent tasting.
  • •
    Examples
    1. Chewable antacids
      2. Image 1
    2. chewable vitamins
      3. Image 1
◉ Dispersible tablets:
  • •
    the tablet is dropped in a small quantity of water, wherein it disperses quickly; the solution is then gulped.
  • •
    mostly used for convenient for children and geriatric population having swallowing difficulty
  • •
    Examples
    1. Paracetamol dispersible
      2. Image 1
    2. Amoxicillin dispersible
◉ Siblingual tablets:
  • •
    put under the tongue, the drug is rapidly absorbed from the mouth
  • •
    Examples
    1. Nitroglycerin (for angina)
      2. Image 1
    2. Ondansetron (antiemetic)
    3. Buprenorphine (opioid dependence)
◉ Enteric coated tablets:
  • •
    the tablet is coated with a material that does not dissolve in the acidic medium of the stomach; the tablet disintegrates only on reaching the duodenum
  • •
    Examples
    1. Aspirin EC
      2. Image 1
    2. Omeprazole EC
◉ Sustained/ Extended release tablets:
  • •
    These contain drug particles which are coated to dissolve at different rates.
  • •
    The active ingredient is made available for absorption over a longer period of time.
  • •
    The duration of action of short acting (2-6 hours) drugs can be extended to 12 hours or more.
  • •
    Examples
    1. Metformin XR (for Type 2 diabetes)
      2. Image 1
    2. Propranolol SR (for Hypertension)
◉ Controlled release tablets:
  • •
    A semipermeable membrane controls the release of the drug – prolonging its duration of action.
  • •
    More stable plasma drug concentrations.
  • •
    Lower risk of side effects due to avoidance of sudden spikes.
  • •
    Examples
    1. Verapamil CR (for Hypertension)
      2. Image 1
    2. Tramadol CR (for Chronic pain)
❖ Pills:
  • •
    These are archaic dosage forms in which the drug powder is mixed with honey/syrup to make a sticky mass. This is then rolled into spherical/oval bodies meant to be swallowed.
  • •
    Examples
      2. Image 1
❖ Capsules:
  • •
    These are water soluble cylindrical containers made of gelatin which are filled with powdered or liquid medicament. The container dissolves on swallowing so that the drug is released in the stomach.
  • •
    Examples
    1. Soft gelatine capsules
      • •
        They dissolve very rapidly and generally contain liquid medicament.
      Image 1
    2. Enteric coated capsules
      • •
        They are designed to dissolve only on reaching the ileum.
    3. Spansules
      • •
        They are extended release capsules which are packed with granules of the drug having different coatings to dissolve over a range of time periods.
❖ Lozenges:
  • •
    These are tablet-like bodies of various shapes containing the drug along with a suitable gum, sweetening and flavouring agents. They are to be retained in the mouth and allowed to dissolve slowly, providing the drug for local action in the mouth and throat.
  • •
    Examples
    1. Strepsils (Soothe sore throat)
      2. Image 1
    2. Vicks lozenges
❖ Suppositories:
  • •
    These are conical bullet- shaped dosage forms for insertion into the anal canal, in which the drug is mixed with a mouldable firm base that melts at body temperature and releases the contained drug.
    • ◈ Pessaries:
    • •
      Oval or suitably shaped bodies for vaginal insertion
    • •
      Examples
      • Type
      Example
      Use
      Ring pessary
      Ring with or without support
      Pelvic organ prolapse support (non-surgical)
      Gellhorn pessary
      Disc-shaped with central stem
      Advanced uterine prolapse
      Hormonal pessary
      Estradiol vaginal tablet/pessary
      Vaginal atrophy (e.g., *Vagifem*)
      Antifungal pessary
      Clotrimazole vaginal pessary
      Vaginal candidiasis (e.g., *Canesten*)
      Antiprotozoal
      Metronidazole vaginal pessary
      Trichomoniasis, bacterial vaginosis
      Contraceptive
      Nonoxynol-9 spermicide pessary
      Vaginal contraceptive method
    ◈ Bougies:
    • •
      elongated pencil-like cones meant for insertion into male or female urethra
      • Device
      Inserted Into
      Purpose
      Examples
      Pessary
      Vagina
      Support organs or deliver medication
      Ring, Gellhorn, Clotrimazole, Vagifem
      Bougie
      Esophagus, urethra, cervix, rectum
      Dilate or assist instrument passage
      Hegar, Maloney, Filiform, Gum elastic bougie
▢ Liquid dosage forms:
❖ Aqueous solutions:
  • •
  • •
    Examples
      2. Image 1
❖ Suspensions:
  • •
  • •
    Examples
      2. Image 1
❖ Elixirs:
  • •
  • •
    Examples
      2. Image 1
❖ Drops:
  • •
  • •
    Examples
      2. Image 1
❖ Lotions:
  • •
  • •
    Examples
      2. Image 1
❖ Injections:
  • •
  • •
    Examples
      2. Image 1
▢ Semisolid dosage forms:
❖ Ointments:
  • •
  • •
    Examples
      2. Image 1
❖ Pastes:
  • •
  • •
    Examples
      2. Image 1
❖ Gels:
  • •
  • •
    Examples
      2. Image 1
▢ Inhalations:
❖ PDMIs (Pressurized metered dose inhalers:
  • •
  • •
    Examples
      2. Image 1
❖ Jet nebulizers:
  • •
  • •
    Examples
      2. Image 1
❖ Rotahaler:
  • •
  • •
    Examples
      2. Image 1
❖ Spin halers:
  • •
  • •
    Examples
      2. Image 1
ROUTES OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION
▢ Local routes:
❖ Topical:
❖ Deeper tissues:
❖ Arterial supply:
▢ Systemic routes:
❖ Oral:
❖ Sublingual (s.i) or buccal:
❖ Rectal:
❖ Cutaneous:
◉ Transdermal therapeutic systems (TTS):
❖ Inhalation:
❖ Nasal:
❖ Parenteral:
Image 1
S.N.
Intradermal
Intravenous
Subcutaneous
Intramuscular
Angle of
administration
10-15°
25°
45°
90°
Site of administration
Superficially into the dermis of the skin raising a bleb
Into the superficial vein located in dermis
Loose subcutaneous tissue located beneath the dermis
Large muscle such as Deltoid, Triceps, Gluteus maximus, Rectus femoris, etc
Advantages
    1. Immediate action (Emergency use)
    2. Useful for highly irritant drugs to insensitive nature of intima of veins
    3. 100% bioavailability
    1. Depot can be administered
      1. Dermojet
      2. Pellet implantation
      3. Sialistic and biodegradable implants
    1. Depot can be injected
    Disadvantages
    1. Bleb formation
    2. Slower acting
    1. Thrombophlebitis
    2. Necrosis of tissue in case of extravasation
    3. No deplot preparations
    4. Embolism formation (air and solid)
    1. Slow absorption
    2. Only small volume can be injected
    1. Deep penetration needed
    2. Self injection can be taked
    Examples
    1. BCG vaccine
    2. Sensitivity testing
    ◉ Intradermal:
    ◉ Intravenous:
    ◉ Subcutaneous:
    ◉ Intramuscular: