1. Anatomy
    2. 1. General anatomy
    2. General histology
    3. General embryology
  2. Physiology
    3. 4. Functional Organization and Internal Environment
    5. Cell Membrane and Communication
    6. Bioelectricity
    7. Ageing and Yoga
    8. Blood
  3. Pharmacology
    4. 9. General Pharmacology
    10. Antibacterial agents
    11. Antifungal agents
    12. Antiviral agent
    13. Antimalarial, anti-kalazar and antifilarial drugs
    14. Anticancer drugs
  4. Pathology
    5. 15. Cellular Adaptation, Injury, and Death
    16. Inflammation and Repair
    17. Hemodynamic Disorders, Thromboembolic Disease, and Shock
    18. Neoplasia
    19. Diseases of the Immune System
  5. Microbiology
    6. 20. General microbiology
    21. Immunology
  6. Biochemistry
    7. 22. Introduction to biochemistry
    23. Metabolism
    24. Vitamins
    25. Nucleic acids DNA and RNA
Anatomy
3. General embryology
▢ Gametogenesis:
❖ Spermatogenesis:
❖ Oogenesis:
▢ Fertilization:

1.

What is fertilization? Write short notes on result of fertilization.

[2066, 2058, 2059]

➤

▢ Cleavage:
▢ Blastocyst formation:

1.

Describe briefly on formation of blastocyst.

[207]

➤

▢ Implantation:
▢ Bilaminar embryonic disc:
▢ Gastrulation:
▢ Neurulation:
▢ Notochord formation:
▢ Intraembryonic mesoderm and its subdivision:

1.

Write short notes on: Intraembryonic mesoderm and its derivatives.

[]

➤

▢ Embryonic period/ Period of Organogenesis:

1.

List the derivaties of ectoderm.

[2067]

➤

2.

List the derivaties of surface ectoderm.

[]

➤

❖ Derivatives:
◉ Ectodermal derivatives:
  1. Epidermis including hair & nails
  2. Central nervous system
  3. Peripheral nervous system
  4. Sensory epithelium of ear, nose & eye
  5. Subcutaneous glands
  6. Pituitary gland
  7. Mammary glands
  8. Enamel of teeth
◉ Mesodermal derivatives:
◈ Paraxial mesoderm:
  1. Forms somitomeres which give rise to mesenchyme of head
  2. Organizes into somites from occipital to caudal segments
  3. Somites give rise to:
    1. Myotome (muscle tissue)
    2. Sclerotome (cartilage & bone)
    3. Dermatome (subcutaneous tissue of skin, dermis of back)
◈ Intermediate mesoderm:
  1. Differentiates into urogenital structures (nephrotomes & nephrogenic cord)
  2. Forms kidneys, gonads, and their ducts (not bladder)
◈ Lateral plate mesoderm:
■ Visceral layer:
  1. Wall of the gut tube
  2. Mesothelial membranes (serous membranes): peritoneal, pleural, pericardial lining
  3. Mesoderm also forms vascular system:
  4. Heart, arteries, veins, lymph vessels, blood & lymph cells
■ Parietal layer:
  1. Lateral body wall folds and closure of ventral body wall
  2. Dermis of skin in body wall and limbs
  3. Bones and connective tissue of limbs and sternum
  4. Most of the body wall muscles
◉ Endodermal derivatives:
  1. Epithelial lining of gastrointestinal tract
  2. Epithelial lining of respiratory tract
  3. Epithelial lining of urinary bladder and urethra
  4. Parenchyma of thyroid, parathyroid, liver and pancreas
  5. Epithelial lining of tympanic cavity and auditory tube
  6. Reticular stroma of tonsils and thymus
▢ Neural crest cells (NCCs):

1.

Write short notes on: Neural crest cells.

[2065, 2063 supple]

➤

❖ Cranial NCCs:
  1. Connective tissue & bones of face and skull
  2. Cranial nerve ganglia
  3. Cells of thyroid gland
  4. Conotruncal septum in heart
  5. Odontoblasts
  6. Dermis of face & neck
  7. Schwann cells
  8. Glial cells
  9. Meninges (forebrain)
  10. Melanocytes
  11. Smooth muscle cells of blood vessels of face & forebrain
❖ Trunk NCCs:
  1. Spinal (dorsal root) ganglia
  2. Sympathetic chains & preaortic ganglia
  3. Parasympathetic ganglia of gastrointestinal tract
  4. Adrenal medulla
▢ Folding of embryo:
▢ Embryonic period:
▢ Placenta:

1.

Write short notes on: Features of mature placenta.

[2068]

➤

2.

Describe the structure of mature placenta. List the different types of abnormal placenta.

(2070)

[]

➤

❖ Structure:
  1. Organ that facilitates nutrient and gas exchange between maternal and fetal components
  2. By beginning of 4th month, placenta has two components:
    1. - Fetal portion:
      1. formed by chorionic frondosum
      2. Fetal side is bordered by the chorionic plate
    2. - Maternal portion:
      1. formed by decidua basalis
      2. Maternal side is bordered by decidua basalis
  3. During 4th and 5th months, decidua forms decidual septa dividing the placenta into compartments or cotyledons
  4. Placental surface area increases in parallel with the expanding uterus
❖ Functions:
  1. Exchange of metabolic and gaseous products between maternal and fetal bloodstreams
    1. - Gases: O₂, CO₂, CO
    2. - Nutrients & electrolytes: amino acids, free fatty acids, carbohydrates, vitamins
    3. Transmission of maternal antibodies (IgG) to fetus
  2. Production of hormones:
    1. progesterone
    2. estrogen
    3. hCG
    4. relaxin
  3. Acts as a barrier:
    1. prevents many bacteria and harmful substances from reaching the fetus
    2. Maintains separation of maternal and fetal blood to prevent antigenic reactions
❖ Anomalies:
  1. Bidiscoidal – Placenta consists of two discs
  2. Lobed – Placenta is divided into distinct lobes
  3. Diffuse – Chorionic villi persist all around blastocyst; placenta is thin and not disc-shaped
  4. Placenta succenturiata – A small part of placenta is separated from the main portion
  5. Fenestrated – A hole is present in the placental disc
  6. Circumvallate – Peripheral edge of placenta is covered by a circular fold of decidua
▢ Twinning:
▢ Fetal membranes:

1.

Write short notes on: Trophoblastic villi.

[2078]

➤

❖ Trophoblastic Villi:
◉ Structure:
  1. Trophoblastic villi are finger-like projections formed from the trophoblast during early embryonic development
  2. Initially composed of two layers: cytotrophoblast (inner cellular layer) and syncytiotrophoblast (outer multinucleated layer)
  3. They invade the maternal endometrium and help form the placenta
  4. There are three stages of villous development:
    1. Primary villi – solid projections consisting of cytotrophoblast covered by syncytiotrophoblast
    2. Secondary villi – extraembryonic mesoderm penetrates the core of primary villi
    3. Tertiary villi – fetal blood vessels form within the mesodermal core of secondary villi
◉ Function:
  1. Facilitate exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste products between maternal and fetal blood
  2. Support implantation and early embryonic nourishment
  3. Form the structural framework of the placenta
  4. Help anchor the chorionic sac to the maternal endometrium
  5. Establish fetal circulation by forming blood vessels within tertiary villi
◉ Clinical RelevanceAnomalies:
  1. Abnormal development of villi can lead to placental insufficiency and fetal growth restriction
  2. Excessive proliferation of trophoblastic villi is seen in hydatidiform mole (a type of gestational trophoblastic disease)
  3. Defective villous invasion may result in conditions like preeclampsia or placenta accreta
▢ Foetal period:
▢ Teratogens and Teratology:

1.

Define teratogenesis. List any 3 common causating agent and their effects of teratogenesis.

(2069)

[]

➤

❖ Teratology:
◉ Definition: The study of birth defects or congenital anomalies that lead to structural, behavioral, functional, and metabolic disorders present at birth.
◉ Teratogens:
◈ Definition: Factors like environmental influences, infectious agents, radiation, and chemicals that cause teratogenicity (birth defects).
◈ Infectious agents:
  1. Rubella virus – Cataract, glaucoma, heart defects
  2. Cytomegalovirus (CMV) – Microcephaly, blindness
  3. Varicella virus – Limb hypoplasia
  4. Toxoplasmosis – Hydrocephalus
◈ Physical agents:
  1. X-rays – Spina bifida, limb defects
◈ Chemical agents:
  1. Thalidomide – Phocomelia
  2. Lithium – Heart defects
  3. Amphetamines – Cleft lip & palate
  4. Alcohol – Fetal alcohol syndrome, heart defects
  5. Aspirin – Premature closure of ductus arteriosus