1. Anatomy
    2. 1. General anatomy
    2. General histology
    3. General embryology
  2. Physiology
    3. 4. Functional Organization and Internal Environment
    5. Cell Membrane and Communication
    6. Bioelectricity
    7. Ageing and Yoga
    8. Blood
  3. Pharmacology
    4. 9. General Pharmacology
    10. Antibacterial agents
    11. Antifungal agents
    12. Antiviral agent
    13. Antimalarial, anti-kalazar and antifilarial drugs
    14. Anticancer drugs
  4. Pathology
    5. 15. Cellular Adaptation, Injury, and Death
    16. Inflammation and Repair
    17. Hemodynamic Disorders, Thromboembolic Disease, and Shock
    18. Neoplasia
    19. Diseases of the Immune System
  5. Microbiology
    6. 20. General microbiology
    21. Immunology
  6. Biochemistry
    7. 22. Introduction to biochemistry
    23. Metabolism
    24. Vitamins
    25. Nucleic acids DNA and RNA
Pathology
15. Cellular Adaptation, Injury, and Death
INTRODUCTION TO PATHOLOGY
CELLULAR ADAPTATION

1.

Write short notes on: Hyperplasia.

(5)

[2074]

➤

Feature
Atrophy
Hypertrophy
Hyperplasia
Definition
Decrease in size and function of a cell, tissue, or organ
Increase in size of individual cells
Increase in number of cells
Cell size
Decreased
Increased
Normal or slightly increased
Cell number
Unchanged or reduced
Unchanged
Increased
Organ size
Decreases
Increases
Increases
Causes
  1. Disuse (immobilization)
  2. Denervation
  3. Ischemia
  4. Malnutrition
  5. Loss of endocrine stimulation
  6. Aging
  1. Increased workload (e.g., muscle in exercise)
  2. Hormonal stimulation (e.g., uterus in pregnancy)
  1. Hormonal stimulation (e.g., endometrium)
  2. Compensatory (e.g., liver regeneration)
  3. Chronic irritation (e.g., skin warts)
Reversibility
Often reversible if cause removed
Usually reversible
Usually reversible
Examples
  1. Muscle wasting in immobilized limb
  2. Brain atrophy in Alzheimer’s
  1. Left ventricular hypertrophy in hypertension
  2. Skeletal muscle in athletes
  1. Endometrial hyperplasia
  2. Prostatic hyperplasia
  3. Liver regeneration after partial hepatectomy
CELL INJURY
▢ Necorsis:

1.

Define necrosis.

(5)

[2070]

➤

▢ Aptosis:

1.

Write short notes on apoptosis.

(5)

[2068]

➤

2.

List the difference between apoptosis and necrosis.

(5)

[2070]

➤

Feature
Apoptosis
Necrosis
Definition
Programmed cell death; energy-dependent and controlled
Uncontrolled cell death due to external injury
Process
Physiological or pathological; tightly regulated
Always pathological (e.g., due to toxins, trauma, ischemia)
Cell size
Cell shrinks
Cell swells
Nuclear changes
Chromatin condensation and DNA fragmentation
Nuclear swelling and lysis
Plasma membrane
Intact but forms apoptotic bodies
Disrupted
Inflammation
No inflammation
Marked inflammation
Energy requirement
Requires ATP (energy-dependent)
No energy requirement
Outcome
Cell fragments are phagocytosed without damaging nearby cells
Cell contents leak → damage to surrounding tissue
Examples
Embryogenesis, hormone-dependent tissue regression, immune cell deletion
Myocardial infarction, gangrene, toxic injuries
PATHOLOGICAL CALCIFICATION

1.

Define pathologic calcification. Describe different types of it.

(5)

[2071]

➤

Feature
Dystrophic Calcification
Metastatic Calcification
Definition
Deposition of calcium salts in dead or degenerated tissues
Deposition of calcium salts in normal, healthy tissues
Serum calcium level
Normal
Elevated (hypercalcemia)
Tissue condition
Damaged or necrotic
Normal
Mechanism
Local tissue injury leads to calcium deposition
High serum calcium precipitates in tissues
Common sites
  1. Atherosclerotic plaques
  2. Tuberculous lymph nodes
  3. Old scars
  4. Damaged heart valves
  1. Gastric mucosa
  2. Lungs
  3. Kidneys
  4. Systemic arteries
Underlying diseases
Necrosis, chronic inflammation, aging tissue
  1. Hyperparathyroidism
  2. Vitamin D intoxication
  3. Chronic renal failure
  4. Bone metastases
Reversibility
Irreversible
Reversible if calcium levels normalized
Examples
  1. Calcified granuloma in TB
  2. Calcification of atherosclerotic plaques
  1. Nephrocalcinosis
  2. Calcification in lungs in chronic renal failure
INTRACELLULAR ACCUMULATION